proto afroasiatic rootsaziende biomediche svizzera

[121], As part of these templates, the alternation (apophony) between high vowels (e.g. crcst test prep; crcst free test questions; paid test; crcst exam prep notes; subscribe tr. Ongota Published 1995 Linguistics This work provides the first truly comprehensive and systematic reconstruction of proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian). [178], The forms of the pronouns are very stable throughout the Afroasiatic (excluding Omotic),[127] and they have been used as one of the chief tools for determining whether a language belongs to the family. *kanf-/*kinf-wing: 325. In Afro-Asiatic languages: Origins originated is referred to as Proto-Afro-Asiatic. Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian) : vowels, tone There is some evidence from Coptic, but this may be unrelated to AA. [41] In the Coptic period, there is evidence for six major dialects, which presumably existed previously but are obscured by pre-Coptic writing; additionally, Middle Egyptian appears to be based on a different dialect than Old Egyptian, which in turn shows dialectal similarities to Late Egyptian. Laal Archive Origins of the Semites | Somali Spot | Forum, News, Videos Ehret's dictionary lists "Proto-South-Cushitic, original homeland of the Afroasiatic family, "The feminine endings *-ay and *-y in Semitic and Berber", "A reconstruction of the system of verb aspects in proto-Berbero-Semitic", Afro-Asiatic and Semitic genealogical trees, short annotations of the talks given there, The prehistory of a dispersal: the Proto-Afrasian (Afroasiatic) farming lexicon, Once More About Glottochronology And The Comparative Method: The Omotic-Afrasian case, Root Extension And Root Formation In Semitic And Afrasian, A comparison of Orel-Stolbova's and Ehret's Afro-Asiatic reconstructions, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&oldid=1142726919, Linguist H. Fleming proposed that the near-exinct, Harold Fleming (1981) divides non-Omotic Afroasiatic, or "Erythraean", into three groups, Cushitic, Semitic, and Chadic-Berber-Egyptian. Aunque las estimaciones varan ampliamente, los eruditos creen que se hablaba como un solo idioma hace entre 12.000 y 18.000 aos (12 a 18 kya ), es decir, entre 16.000 y 10.000 a . [26] The second is the Guanche language, which was formerly spoken on the Canary Islands and went extinct in the 17th century CE. [98] Additionally, the glottal stop () usually exists as a phoneme, and there tends to be no phonemic contrast between [p] and [f] or [b] and [v]. shared innovation: *isin-/*usun- 'they' (originally fem./masc. The Egyptian prefix has a middle voice/intransitive/or passive meaning. *iw- 'cow') (Eg., Sem. [145] Edward Lipiski refers to Semitic nouns as having four states: absolute (free/indeterminate), construct, determinate, and predicate. Upload your video About the author [130], The assignment of nouns and pronouns to either masculine or feminine gender is present in all branches - but not all languages - of the Afroasiatic family. p-Central Togo Thanks for viewing our Ebay listing! innovation: 'to rub' > 'to scrape'), (* and *a are reconstructed because they are required in derived root #651 below), (#649 + *r diffus. envisaged a tome citing several hundred reconstructed roots; he did manage, however, to publish over a hundred (53 proto-roots were published, for example, in Hodge 1981). Afroasiatic Languages - Linguistics - Oxford Bibliographies - obo Afrasian. p-Katloid [34], The Egyptian branch consists of a single language, Ancient Egyptian, which was historically spoken in the lower Nile Valley. *t: . [97] All Afroasiatic languages contain stops and fricatives; some branches have additional types of consonants such as affricates and lateral consonants. Tula-Waja [156] It is unclear whether this system is a common AA trait;[157] the Chadic examples, for instance, show signs of originally deriving from affixes, which could explain the origins of the alterations in other languages as well. The main quality of Afro-Asiatic is that it "cuts across usually perceived racial boundaries" (Dalby, p.6). Great variety is incorporated in one family and this makes Afro-Asiatic an interesting topic of study. Answer: Semitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family, which includes over 400 languages spoken across much of Africa and the Middle East. The quality of the underlying vowels varies considerably by language; the most common vowel throughout AA is schwa. [54] However, Christopher Ehret (1979), Harold Fleming (1981), and Joseph Greenberg (1981) all agree that the Omotic branch split from the rest first. Gule infix [also tonal shift as found in Chadic cases]), (this root is included because #871 following derives from it), (sing. Defaka [147][148] Berber instead contrasts between the "free state" and the "annexed state," the latter of which is used for a variety of purposes, including for subjects placed after a verb and after certain prepositions. The most up to . One hypothesis places it in the Levant, as the language of the Natufian hunter-gatherers who were the first to adopt a farming lifestyle more than 10,000 years ago. [91] Typically, syllables only begin with a single consonant. all catalog, articles, website, & more in one search catalog books, media & more in the Stanford Libraries' collections articles+ journal articles & other e-resources 2.11. How did Semitic languages originate? Are they descended from Proto The Afro Asiatic Biblical Hebrew Language & History Additionally, Joseph Greenberg argued that "Hamitic" has racial connotations, and that the name "Hamito-Semitic" overstates the centrality of the Semitic languages within the family. innovation: specialization of meaning to plant growth), (Berber, e.g., Shilh agafay 'cloud,' implies a 2nd root shape *-gaap-), to impel, make move (by pushing, pulling), (root #311+old Afroasiatic pl. It is, rather, a comparison of Proto-Indo-European with Proto-Afroasiatic. Traditionally, the Hausa subject pronouns have been compared to the prefix conjugation. [40] Egyptian is first attested in writing around 3000 BCE and finally went extinct around 1300 CE, making it the language with the longest written history in the world. [77][127] Berber, and Egyptian, and most Semitic languages are verb-initial languages, whereas Cushitic, Omotic and some Semitic subgroups are verb-final languages. > *itsan-; Omotic innovation: stem + *m n. p-Jukunoid Whether this proto-language is ancestral to Berber and Semitic only, or also to other branches of Afroasiatic, still remains to be established. [68] Greenberg also proposed that Hausa was part of a Chadic branch of Afroasiatic, and that Afroasiatic consisted of five main branches, Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, and Semitic. English and its relatives | Sciforums The Proto-Afroasiatic Vowel System. [70] On the one hand, the classification of languages as "Hamitic" relied on linguistic features, such as the presence of male and female grammatical gender; thus Meinhof even split the Chadic family into "Hamito-Chadic" and unrelated non-Hamitic Chadic based on which languages possessed gender. Root Structure Patterning in Proto-Kartvelian. [92] Diakonoff argues that Proto-Afroasiatic syllables disallowed consonant clusters or vowels at the end of a syllable. . ; Eg., Sem. Greenberg, 1958 D. Cohen,. The Subclassification of Afroasiatic (Afrasian) Appendix 1. He later added Semitic and Beja to Chadic-Berber-Egyptian and tentatively proposed, Alexander Militarev (2000), on the basis of. i, u) and a low vowel (a) in verbal forms is usually described as one of the main characteristics of AA languages: this change codes a variety of different functions. Linguistics 450 ; Sem., Eg. [13] Each of Noah's sons was traditionally presented as being the common ancestor of several apparently-related people groups, with Shem understood by the original audience as being the common ancestor of the Jews, Assyrians, and Arameans, among others, and Ham seen as the ancestor of the Egyptians and Cushites. [128] Proto-Chadic is reconstructed as having verb-initial word order,[80] but most Chadic languages have subject-verb-object word order. However, not one of Militarev's proposed 32 agricultural roots can be considered diagnostic of cultivation. Meredith Holt 'to come so close as to brush against'), (Eg., Sem. The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. [27] The first longer written examples of modern Berber varieties only date from the 16th or 17th centuries CE. There was additional language contact within the Afro-Asiatic family when Arabs invaded Egypt in 640 A.D. Coptic, a daughter language of ancient Egyptian, had flourished until that time but was replaced eventually by Arabic (Voegelin ,p13). [105], Restrictions against the co-occurrence of certain, usually similar, consonants in verbal roots can be found in all Afroasiatic branches, though they are only weakly attested in Chadic and Omotic. [146] Coptic and Egyptian grammar also refers to nouns having a "free" (absolute) state, a "construct state," and a "pronominal state." [22] Other scholars, however, argue that they are a group of around twelve languages, about as different from each other as the Romance or Germanic languages. Gumuz In current scholarship, the most common names used for the family are Afroasiatic (or Afro-Asiatic), Hamito-Semitic, and Semito-Hamitic. [75] Proponents of an African origin of Afroasiatic assume the proto-language to have been spoken by pre-Neolithic African hunter-gatherers,[76] arguing that there is no evidence of words in Proto-Afroasiatic related to agriculture or animal husbandry. innovation: shift to outflow of water, not from body; root *-sa- seen in #540 + *t dur. [40] The latest possible date for the existence of Proto-Afroasiatic is c. 4000 BCE, after which Egyptian and the Semitic languages are first attested; however, the languages must have diverged and evolved for some time before this. velar consonants can occur with pharyngeals or laryngeals; This page was last edited on 4 March 2023, at 01:29. *kns-loins: 326. Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone p-Yoruboid Anaang There is no consensus regarding the location of the Proto-Semitic Urheimat; scholars hypothesize that it may have originated in the Levant, the Sahara, or the Horn of Africa, and the view that it arose in the Arabian Peninsulahas also been common historically. [155], The degree to which the AA verbal root was triliteral (having three consonants) is debated. [17][18] Victor Porkhomovsky suggests that the label "Hamito-Semitic" is at this point simply convention and no more implies an opposition between Semitic and "Hamitic" languages than "Indo-European" implies a "European" and an Indic branch. Mao p-Cushitic Momo Looking at present languages and going backward helps us know what languages were like anciently (Atlas, p.75). Tiefo Proto-Semitic was a contemporary of PIE. The Berber and Semitic branches share certain grammatical features (e.g. innovation: addition of * concisive to denote short, concentrated outflow, hence vomiting), (Sem., Eg. in *n, as also in #210), (Sem., Eg. Nostratic languages Wiki - Everipedia.org p-Central Chadic Such evidence may reveal plants known to early Afroasiatic speakers; but it does not diagnose whether they were cultivated or wild. In the series University of California Publications in Linguistics 126. These classifications of language sub-sets vary according to different texts. Christopher Ehret | UCLA History Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary. except for Semitic, which is also spoken in the Middle-East and Malta, all branches of the The Semitic line of Afro-Asiatic has the most language sub-sets. as ELL). [133][150] It forms agent nouns, place nouns, and instrument nouns. Cognate Dictionary Studies in Baltic and Indo-European Linguistics The Roots of Hinduism Latin - nus, -na, -nus and -neus Tracing the Indo-Europeans Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo- . innovation: 'increase' > 'grow fat, thicken'), (root #141 + *n n. p-Fali ), to become thoroughly wet, pour heavily (intr. Their range extended from the Benue Trough and Lake Chad, to the Nile Valley, the Indus Valley, and Southern Europe during the African Aqualithic Period. About us. There is no information on whether Egyptian had tones. [47] Other scholars have questioned whether it is Afroasiatic at all, due its lack of several typical aspects of Afroasiatic morphology. Tadaksahak, p-Niger-Congo This family was formally described and named "Semitic" by August Ludwig von Schlzer in 1781. [99] In all AA languages, consonants can be bilabial, alveolar, velar, and glottal, with additional places of articulation found in some branches or languages. to domestic animals in general, then narrowing in PS and Eg. [117] In the different languages, central vowels are often inserted to break up consonant clusters (a form of epenthesis). This great divide has made travel difficult so linguistic boundaries tend to be based on either side. I.5. Nostratic - Indo-European The "t-stem" may be reflected in some forms in Hausa; however may also derive from a language internal development and has no cognates elsewhere in Chadic. p-Gbaya [99] Various Semitic, Cushitic, Berber, and Chadic languages, including Arabic, Amharic, Berber, Somali, and East Dangla, also exhibit various types of vowel harmony. p-Potou-Akanic [32] It may have as many as 80 to 100 million first and second language speakers. Author: Martin Bernal Language: EnglishEdition: 1stBinding: HardcoverPages: 575Publisher: Rutgers Univ PressPublication Date: 304805601149 * "The Origins of Third Consonants in Semitic Roots: An Internal Reconstruction (Applied to Arabic)," Journal of Afroasiatic Languages 3, 2 (1989): 109-202. p-Tuu Potential Afroasiatic Urheimat near Lake Megachad ; PC variant *damn-), (Ch., Eg., Sem. p-Benue-Congo (PDF) The Origins of Afroasiatic - ResearchGate Afroasiatic languages have over 500 million native speakers, which is the fourth-largest number of native speakers of any language family (after Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, and NigerCongo). [40] Coptic is the only stage written alphabetically to show vowels, whereas Egyptian was previously written in Egyptian hieroglyphs, which only represent consonants. [99], The majority of AA languages are tonal languages: phonemic tonality is found in Omotic, Chadic, and Cushitic languages, but absent in Berber and Semitic. [80] Most scholars place the homeland of Afroasiatic near the center of its current distribution,[8] "in the southeastern Sahara or adjacent Horn of Africa. < v. in #918 by V > VV; occurrence of PSC *ee (or *e?) of #724 by adding *-(a)C- where C = preceding stem-final C, is implied in Eg. [82] Likewise, all Semitic languages are fairly similar to each other, whereas the African branches of Afroasiatic are very diverse; this suggests the rapid spread of Semitic out of Africa. SLEC Som. PDF Etymological Dictionary Of Egyptian Pdf | Dev.pulitzercenter ; semantics: flow out bit-by-bit), *-man-/*-mun-, *-ma-/*-mu-, *-ma-/*-mu-, (root #572 + *w inchoat. Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone p-Cangin Some languages have an additional feminine plural form in -t that is not listed here. ; semantics: from closed- to open-ended action), to be wrong, bad, ill; do or function wrongly, (Eg., Ch. p-Nupoid E-V13. suff. Summary of Numbered Sound Shift Rules; Index 1. 2.12. [132] Additionally, even when nouns are not cognates, they tend to have the same gender throughout Afroasiatic ("gender stability"). p-Atlantic-Congo Hadza, https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Appendix:Proto-Afroasiatic_reconstructions&oldid=68902118, attributive noun and attributive deverbative suffix, attributive and complement deverbative suffix, noun derivation from verb by stem-vowel lengthening, (Sem., Eg. Proto-Afro-Asiatic language | Britannica innovation: move > move toward), (probably demon., root #767+ *l n./adj. [120] Ronny Meyer and H. Ekkehard Wolff instead propose that Proto-Afroasiatic may have had no vowels as such, instead employing various syllabic consonants (*l, *m, *n, *r) and semivowels or semivowel-like consonants (*w, *y, *, *, *, *h, *, *, *, *h) to form syllables. [40] Tom Gldemann, however, argues that less time may have been required than is commonly assumed, as it is possible for a language to rapidly restructure due to language contact, as happened in the Chadic branch and probably also in Omotic. Proto-Afro-Asiatic is proposed to have been spoken 18,000 years ago near the Horn of Africa (eastern Africa). [28], Chadic languages number between 150 and 190, making Chadic the largest family in Afroasiatic. [20], There are between 40 and 80 languages in the Semitic family. [79], An African origin has broad scholarly support,[75] and is favored by most linguists on the basis of the linguistic data. p-Songhay A main characteristic of Afro-Asiatic languages is the use of vowel changes in word formation. Olukumi p-North Bauchi ), (root #695 + *f iter.? [100], All or most branches of AA have a contrast between voiceless, voiced, and "emphatic" consonants. *y: adjective suffix: 3. for expected *ii probably reflects phonetic influence of PC root in #254), (Sem., Eg. [65] He did not include the Chadic languages, though contemporary Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius argued for the relation of Hausa to the Berber languages. The Proto-Afroasiatic Consonant System. These include Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, Altaic and Dravidian (Atlas, p.74). [131] This sex-based gender system is widely agreed to derive from Proto-Afroasiatic. Afro-Asiatic languages | Britannica innovation: added meaning 'firm,' hence, figuratively, 'firmly established, strong'), to intertwine, to bind by twining together, to be above, be at the top, form the tip or peak, (Sem., Ch. PDF Vowels And Consonants suff. [54] The "Hamitic theory" would serve as the basis for Carl Meinhof's highly influential classification of African languages in his book Die Sprache der Hamiten (1912). Pre-Proto-Semitic Roots (Additional to those presented in Ehret 1989) Appendix 2. p-Ogoni (root #311+old Afroasiatic pl. In Arabic, ti-ktib means she writes and katab-it means she wrote. shared innovation: 'move, take' > 'take hold of'), (Cush., Ch., Eg., Sem. ; PS, Eg., Ch. [68] In 1969, Harold Fleming proposed that a group of languages classified as Cushitic by Greenberg were in fact an independent "Omotic" language family, a proposal that has been widely accepted but remains controversial. [5] It includes languages spoken predominantly in West Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africaand parts of the Sahel. Online Library The Oxford Introduction To Proto Indo European And The Vol.1. The Cushitic forms in particular may be derived from morphology found in subordinate clauses. p-Gbe (Fongbe) [15] Mller assumed that there existed a distinct "Hamitic" branch of the family that consisted of Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic. Theodor Benfy found that Egyptian and Semitic languages were similar in 1844, and he classified them under the Semito-Hamitic language family. Lafofa, p-Afroasiatic Philippine History PinoyExchange The speakers of Boreafrasian migrated north to an arid Sahara climate, then eventually pushed on west and east. p-Nilo-Saharan [87], Afroasiatic languages share a number of phonetic and phonological features. 'be, exist'), (root seen also in #983 + probably *s caus. This name is possibly based upon the root "-b-r" ( . These are some known features common to more than one branch, though (Hodge 1971; Lecarme, Lowenstamm, and Shlonsky 2000; Frajzyngier and Shay 2012): [3] The phylum has six branches: Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, Semitic, and Omotic. >I find it odd how Semitic is still Afroasiatic even though it's tied to a non-E haplogroup Egyptian and Semitic are both J. Cushitic is T and Chadic is J/R1b-V88. and touches on external evidence from Afroasiatic cognate languages. [90] Some Chadic languages allow a syllable to begin with a vowel. South Bauchi Afroasiatic (Afro-Asiatic), also known as Afrasian or Hamito-Semitic, Semito-Hamitic, or Erythraean is a large language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in the Middle East, North Africa, the Horn of Africa and parts of the Sahel. The only branch that's actually E is Berber. Proto-Afroasiatic, sometimes also referred to as Proto-Afrasian, is the reconstructed proto-language from which all modern Afroasiatic languages are descended. Linguists use the term "state" to refer to different things in different languages. Common Indo-European-Afroasiatic Roots, Supplement I (1986) - Academia.edu The languages that evolved from Proto-Arabic have around 313 million native speakers, concentrated primarily in the Middle East and North Africa.[5]. p-Kongo ref. Mimi-D *kop-sole (of foot . [193][194], Afroasiatic languages share a vocabulary of Proto-Afroasiatic origin to varying extents. [93] Most words end in a vowel in Omotic and Cushitic, making syllable-final consonant clusters rare. ), to extend, stretch out (intr. [197], There are two etymological dictionaries of Afroasiatic, one by Christopher Ehret, and one by Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova, both from 1995. [11] Because the term "Afroasiatic" could be taken to mean that the family includes all the languages of Africa and Asia, the term "Afrasian" is sometimes used instead; this name was proposed by Igor Diakonoff (1980) and is mostly used by Russian scholars. [119] Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova instead proposed a six vowel system with a, e, o, i, ([y]), and u. The results, while confirming some previous views on proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian), revise or overturn many others, and add much that is new. [71] In the end, Meinhof's classification included languages from every family in Africa that is recognized by modern linguistics. Many of these roots have other proposed cognates that are not included on the table. Mimi-N [66] Some scholars would continue to regard Hausa as related to the other Afroasiatic languages, but the idea was controversial: many scholars refused to admit that the largely unwritten, "Negroid" Chadic languages were in the same family as the "Caucasian" ancient civilizations of the Egyptians and Semites. Appendix:Proto-Afroasiatic reconstructions - Wiktionary [108] Such rules do not always apply for nouns, numerals, or denominal verbs, and do not affect prefixes or suffixes added to the root. [121] Such scholars postulate that tones developed to compensate for lost or reduced syllables, and note that certain tones are often associated with certain syllable-final consonants.[125]. Though estimations vary widely, it is believed by scholars to have been spoken as a single language around 12,000 to 18,000 years ago (12 to 18 kya ), that is, between 16,000 and 10,000 BC. Carleton Taylor Hodge - JSTOR [112] Greenberg divided Semitic consonants into four types: "back consonants" (glottal, pharyngeal, uvular, laryngeal, and velar consonants), "front consonants" (dental or alveolar consonants), liquid consonants, and labial consonants. London: Routledge, 1990. Among the countries included in this language family are: Chad, Niger, Nigeria, Sudan, Egypt, Algeria, and Ethiopia. shared innovation: 'raise' > 'lift, pick up'; probable further Ch., Eg., Sem. ), to get up to leave, start out, come or go forth, (Eg., Sem. [156], There is no agreement about which tenses or aspects Proto-Afroasiatic might have had. The other three are very closely related and it is not hard for, say, a Dane to learn to understand a Swede. p-Fula-Sereer While there is no consensus among historical linguists concerning the original homeland of the Afroasiatic family or the period when the parent language (i.e. [127] These pronouns tend to show a masculine "u" and a feminine "i". Fifteen are glossed as names of plants or loose categories of plants. p-Plateau (p-Tarokoid) Continue Reading 5 Brian Collins The modern word "Hebrew" is derived from the word "Ivri" (plural "Ivrim"; English: Hebrews), one of several names for the Israelite (Jewish and Samaritan) people. Each aspect of these reconstructions is substantiated in detail in an extensive etymological vocabulary of more than 1000 roots. All branches of Afroasiatic have a limited number of underlying vowels (between two and seven), but the number of phonetic vowels can be much larger. p-Nubian The languages of what is now Afro-Asiatic occupy a "vast area that stretches from Morocco to Arabia" (Dalby, p.6). to different specific animals), (possible vowel reconstructions: *a, *aa, *e, or *o), (Sem., Ch. alternative feminine endings *-ay/*-y; corresponding vowel templates for verbal conjugations) which can be reconstructed for a higher-order proto-language (provisionally called "Proto-Berbero-Semitic" by Kossmann & Suchard (2018) and Van Putten (2018)). There are approximately 400 Afroasiatic languages, either living or recorded but extinct. PSom-III. [29] The Chadic languages are typically divided into three major branches, East Chadic, Central Chadic, and West Chadic. p-Mande (p-W. Mandep-Mandekanp-Niger-Voltap-S. Mande) 1 Afro-Asiatic Language Family. Pr. The HmongMien languages also known as MiaoYao and rarely as Yangtzean1 are a highly tonal language family of southern China and northern Southeast Retard. [122] In some Chadic and some Omotic languages every syllable has to have a tone, whereas in most Cushitic languages this is not the case. [67][68], An important development in the history of Afroasiatic scholarship - and the history of African linguistics - was the creation of the "Hamitic theory" or "Hamitic hypothesis" by Lepsius, fellow Egyptologist Christian Bunsen, and linguist Christian Bleek. [173] While some scholars posit an AA origin for this form, it is possible that the Berber and Cushitic forms are independent developments,[130] as they show significant differences from the Egyptian and Semitic forms. [134] A system K (masculine), T (feminine), and H (plural) can be found in Cushitic, Chadic, with masculine K also appearing in Omotic. [45] Omotic is typically split into North Omotic (or Aroid) and South Omotic, with the latter more influenced by the Nilotic languages; it is unclear whether the Dizoid group of Omotic languages belongs to the Northern or Southern group. bantu semitic language Proto-Afroasiatic is a reconstructed language. Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone Social:Proto-Semitic language - HandWiki [19] Additionally, a majority of specialists consider the Omotic languages to constitute a sixth branch. [29], There are about 30,[34] 50,[35] or 70[36] Cushitic languages, spoken around the Horn of Africa and in Sudan and Tanzania. Afroasiatic is generally considered to be comprised of the language families Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, Omotic, and Semitic. [174] It is found in Egyptian, Semitic, and possibly, in some relic forms, Berber. Proto-Afroasiatic phonology has been the subject of several proposals for reconstruction that are not only different from each other, but also very divergent (cf.

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